Knowledge Base for Water Treatment Professionals

Water Treatment Knowledge Base

The purpose of the “Mike-O-Pedia” is to share knowledge with our peers. We will be posting on a regular basis and look forward to answering questions or discussing comments and applications with our dealer customer base.

Topic: Microparticles

Research Conducted by Megan Rockafellow-Baldoni, Steven E. Spayd, Mark G. Robson

A study was conducted on 62 homes in New Jersey to investigate the escape of treatment media microparticles (not microplastics) into the water supply.

Study in collaboration with Rutgers University PhD student, Megan Rockafellow-Baldoni, and Mark G. Robson.
Inspected homes with whole-house arsenic water treatment systems.
Found treatment media in 71% of homes, indicating a widespread issue.
Microparticles: Tiny particles from water treatment media such as granular ferric iron, titanium, or hybrid media (iron impregnated anion resin). These particles can break off from the media used in treatment systems.
Microplastics: Small plastic pieces typically less than five millimeters in length, originating from the breakdown of larger plastic debris or microbeads in personal care products.

Detailed Findings

In 61 homes there were 10 different system manufacturers.
The systems used the various types of arsenic removal media including granular ferric iron, titanium, hybrid media (iron impregnated anion resin).
The systems were “lead-lag.”
Homeowners reported reduced water flow due to media particles clogging faucet screens and accumulating in toilet tanks.
Microparticles of arsenic removal media or softener resin were found in 44 of 62 homes.
Particle Types
- Media types included granular ferric iron, titanium, hybrid media (iron impregnated anion resin).
- Particle size ranged between 5 and 20 microns.
The study was not about why the media escaped. This would require more study.
Reasons “why” microparticles escape:
- Media broken into small particles, some possibly due to compression and backwashing processes.
- Faulty distributor tube.
- Inadequate backwashing

Health Concerns:

Potential for media particles to carry contaminants into the drinking water supply.
Importance of ensuring treatment systems do not introduce new hazards while removing existing ones.

Industry Considerations:

There is a strong need for post-treatment sediment filters to capture escaping media particles.
- Install 5-micron sediment filters post-treatment to catch escaping particles.
  - At one research home a sediment filter was installed and examined 6 months later. It successfully captured the particles.
- Recommendation for further research to identify causes and solutions.
  - Examine different distribution systems and underbedding materials.
  - Conduct lab experiments to test various screen sizes and materials.

Conclusion

All the systems worked well but it’s important not to introduce new problems while solving existing ones.
Encouragement for ongoing research and industry improvements.

Research was published in “Water Environment Research” journal.

Free Read Only Copy of the Research Paper

Concerned dealers can contact Steven Spayd through his website Diagnosis Water.

Topic: Whole House RO

For more complete information listen to the It’s Your Water podcast It’s Your Water Podcast; thanks go to Allan Horner.

Water Usage and Efficiency:

Modern high-efficiency components have reduced average water usage from 75 gallons per person per day to 50 gallons or less.

System Sizing Considerations:

The costs between 1,000 gallons per day (gpd) and 4,000 gpd reverse osmosis (RO) systems may be close, however opting for a larger size offers several advantages:

Water Usage and Efficiency:

Modern high-efficiency components have reduced average water usage from 75 gallons per person per day to 50 gallons or less.

System Sizing Considerations:

The cost difference between a 1,000 gallons per day (gpd) and 4,000 gpd reverse osmosis (RO) systems is similar, opting for a larger size offers several advantages:
- Prolonged membrane life reduces the frequency of replacements.
- Consistent performance over time; a 4,000 gpd system can decrease to 1.5 gpm after two years without needing immediate membrane replacement.
- Fewer service calls and reduced risk of water shortages.
- Better performance in colder climates where water production can halve. A 1,000 gpd RO would struggle to make enough water in mid-west and east coast winters.
- Space efficiency as larger systems (500 gpd to 4,000 gpd) share the same footprint and can utilize smaller storage tanks, such as a 95-gallon tank versus the traditional 300-gallon tanks. These smaller tanks fit easily in garages without impacting vehicle storage.

Storage Solutions and Float Options:

For setups where the RO and storage tank are in separate locations, consider remote float options:
- Dual-level mechanical floats with separate start and stop levels, coupled with a pressure tank and switch for efficient operation.
- Simpler, cost-effective magnetic reed switches or mechanical floats for basic systems.
- Avoid high-voltage systems or too frequent sanitization to prevent equipment degradation.

Maintenance Tips:

Favor computer-controlled systems over mechanical controls to avoid issues like pump short-cycling.
Regular sanitization is crucial, particularly in warm climates or outdoor installations. Ozone injection systems are recommended for effective sanitization, suggested at once a week to maintain bacteria-free water.

Sanitization and Filtration:

Non-vented tank lids are preferable for preventing contamination, though they require high-grade filtration which can be costly.
If situated in a potentially contaminated environment (e.g., near livestock or in mold-prone areas), additional filtration and UV treatment are advisable to ensure water purity.

Topic: Using Antiscalants

Information provided via It’s Your Water Podcast; thanks go to Allan Horner Impact Water Products.

What is an Antiscalant?

Antiscalant is commonly used in place of softening
It is a chemical typically comprised of polymeric inhibitor molecules in a phosphoric acid-based composition.
As with most scaling applications, lowering pH and sequestering calcium carbonate and other scaling minerals can greatly decrease scaling

When do we use antiscalants instead of water softeners for RO pre-treatment? Almost always.

In the past a common 4”x 40” membrane was over 10 times the today’s cost. The cost of protecting them was an issue.
For example, at 20 grains hardness, the capital cost of the softener isn’t prohibitive. However, $1,000 a year of salt is required.
Now that superior quality membranes are a couple hundred dollars, it is cheaper to simply replace them rather than protect them.
Commercial softening has not been available in most of Southern California for several decades. Antiscalant has been the only option for protecting membranes and extending their life. The cost of antiscalant injection used to be comparable to softening but this has also changed.
For smaller RO systems, the cost of antiscalant injection is about 1/3 of the softener capital cost and ¼ of the operating cost. On larger systems the capital cost is far lower since the exact same injection system is used on a 2,000 GPD RO as is used on a 100,000 GPD RO.
The operating cost or the cost of chemical can also go down significantly since the use of concentrated antiscalant is significantly lower than “Raw” antiscalant. Raw is 1,000,000 ppm, concentrated is typically 10X (10 times), or 10,000,000 ppm. Antiscalant can be purchased in UPS friendly 1-gallon jugs in 2X and 10X concentrates, as well as “raw” 5-gallon buckets, 10X 5-gallon buckets, and 55 Gallon drums. A 1-gallon jug of 10X concentrate can treat 2 million gallons of RO feedwater.

Are they approved for drinking water?

Yes, NSF 60 approvals are common for antiscalant manufacturers, even so, this is pre-RO so the vast majority of the antiscalant is rejected to waste.

Are some formulations better than others?

Yes, but considering that the cost has become competitive between different formulations, many companies simply offer a single formulation for most applications.
The cost of having inventory of a single formula is well worth it. Unless you are doing municipal applications or extremely large RO systems, going for the “exact right formula” to save money does not make sense for smaller RO systems, (smaller being typically under ½ million gallon per day).

Are there simple rules of thumb for feeding Antiscalants?

In general, for most applications a 5-ppm feed for “raw” antiscalant is the most common setting. Overdosing can be worse than under dosing.
- For example, there was system using a diaphragm pump that had low feed pressure, the RO booster pump was able to put a slight vacuum on the antiscalant pump and it started drawing high doses of antiscalant into a bank of twenty 8” membranes. In a week, they drew in over 50 gallons of antiscalant, and fouled the membranes with a glue-like substance. For this reason ultra low dosing peristaltic pumps, like Stenner, are recommended because they are a double check valve design that can eliminate this problem from happening.

What do you look for in a water analysis?

When it comes to membrane protection, focus on organics and scaling minerals-pH, iron, manganese, alkalinity, hardness, TDS, and reduction of contaminants for specific applications. For example, the reduction of boron in agricultural applications.

Benefits

Any RO that is 1,000 GPD or more will benefit from antiscalant injection.
The lowered cost of maintenance, even the lowered cost of potential liability from not hauling and lifting 50-pound bags of salt should be considered.
When compared to softener maintenance, pouring a gallon of a mild chemical into a tank, and replacing a pump tube annually is minor.
The amount of salt released unnecessarily into the environment is eliminated with a low cost and simple antiscalant injection system.
Unlike other technologies, chemical antiscalant injection is quantifiable and well proven and accepted.

How do we settle upon a feed rate?

Basically, take the permeate and concentrate rates, add them together and we do the math to get a 5 PPM injection rate. See information here: Podcast Transcription Eonomies of Scale_Stenner_Math

Topic: Understanding Anion Resin

It’s Your Water Podcast Resin Refresher 2 Anion
When we talk about cation resin, we’re removing positively charged cationic species like hardness and iron. The functional group is anionic. A cation bead is a big ball of anionic or negative charge which attracts positively charged ions.
Anion resin is the opposite – A big ball of cationic or positive charge. Anion resins have positively charged functional groups which attract negatively charged ions such as nitrates and PFAS.

Specialty or Selective Resins

Selective resins are not selective (deselective) towards higher charges like sulfate. Nitrate has a minus 1 charge, and sulfate (also usually in water), has a minus 2 charge (higher charge).
- How it works. The technical term is sterically hindered, the functional groups are just bigger and there’s more in the way. Defined as “Situations where there are multiple possible reaction sites on a molecule, the presence of bulky groups can favor one site over another by blocking access to less hindered sites.”
- Functional groups, one on one, have a certain selectivity; for instance, for one charge. But when you bring two into the equation, meaning there’s a minus 2 charge or even a plus 2 for a cation, you need two functional groups close together to make it work properly. When we say sterically hindered, what we’re really saying is the functional groups really act like they’re further apart so that the ion you’re trying to attach really can’t reach 2, it can only reach 1. So, when a very high selective minus 1 charge comes in (like Nitrate), it’s going to knock that minus 2 out of the way.
- There are other highly selective minus 1 charges. PFASs are negative 1 charges. The attraction of the PFAS chemistry is that one to one charge pull. Selective resins are used for perchlorate removal, also a minus 1 charge. These are the big three minus 1s that we deal with.
Tannin resins are strong base anion resins with larger pore structures (macroporous), specifically designed to accommodate tannin removal. These larger pores effectively capture tannin compounds from the water.
- The challenge with tannin resin is maintaining its cleanliness for repeated use. In an ideal scenario, it would require regeneration with a two to five percent brine concentration at 140 degrees Fahrenheit for four hours, which is not practical for typical home applications. Due to these limitations, tannin resins typically last around a year to 18 months in normal use.
- In industrial or commercial environments, it might be more feasible to implement the regeneration process for tannin resin. However, even in large commercial applications, such as municipal water treatment, practical limitations can still make it challenging to achieve the optimal regeneration conditions mentioned above.
- The practical constraints and costs associated with ideal regeneration processes often limit the lifespan of tannin resins in real-world applications. It’s a constant struggle to balance the effectiveness of tannin removal with the available equipment and resources.
- Extending the brining process is one approach to try and maximize the resin’s lifespan, but it can still be challenging to achieve long-term durability given these limitations. This method allows for the introduction of brine into the treatment process, followed by a temporary pause in the process, during which the brine is allowed to interact with the resin. After this pause, the brine treatment step is resumed. Assuming the control valve can accommodate the procedure, this can be used to enhance water treatment processes by optimizing the interaction between brine and the treatment system.
- Heating the brine before introducing it into the system would be ideal, although this might be impractical or impossible to achieve in certain situations. Heating brine can enhance its effectiveness in certain water treatment processes.
- Soda ash can be used to raise the pH of the brine for cleaning purposes, but it’s not practical to simply throw a bag of soda ash into a brine tank and leave it, as soda ash is highly soluble at low concentrations. Moreover, this approach would require frequent addition of soda ash during each regeneration cycle. Handling soda ash can be hazardous ⚠️.
Cleaning Anion
- Anions are tricky to clean compared to cation. It’s recommended to raise the pH of the brine when dealing with organic fouling. In a commercial or industrial setting heated brine with sodium hydroxide or soda ash to raise the pH can be used. But it’s essential that no hardness is present as they can precipitate and cause issues like calcium carbonate or calcium sulfate scale.
- For hardness fouling on anion resins, the best approach is to use hydrochloric acid or muriatic acid, ⚠️but this choice depends on the equipment’s compatibility and handling precautions. Avoid citric acid and phosphoric acids due to their weak dissolving power for scale and their tendency to introduce citrate ions, which can be selective for anion resin and reduce its capacity for subsequent uses.
- However, if you must choose an acid cleaner for anion resin, it’s safer to opt for phosphoric acid-based products. It’s important to note that this may not be strong enough to achieve the desired cleaning goals, but they are less likely to damage the resin and it will regenerate off.
- When performing a resin cleaning, it’s advised to be thorough. The typical resin cleaning instructions are designed for everyday regeneration or preventive maintenance. If you’re conducting a more intensive cleaning, it’s recommended to hit it hard and allow it to soak. Afterward, ensure thorough rinsing before initiating the regeneration process. Additionally, you should do a double regen, meaning extend the chemical addition time twice as long during regeneration to ensure that all traces of the cleaner are effectively removed from the resin bed.
- pH cleaning – If you use ⚠️ caustic or soda ash to raise the pH during cleaning, it can result in an elevated pH level of the resin, which can cause a smelly fish odor. To address this, a critical step in the process is to perform a regeneration after the treatment. This regeneration involves a “hard normal” brine regen to thoroughly remove any residual high pH from the resin, allowing it to return to its normal state. This process should prevent any lingering odor issues, and while the resin may be temporarily affected, it is not permanently damaged.
Resin Condition
- When anion resin is in use, it can change color over time, typically transitioning from a light color to light brown and then darker brown. If the resin appears to be jet black when it’s removed from the tank, it’s likely fouled and may need replacement.
- Another method for checking resin integrity is by rolling some resin beads through your fingers. If the resin easily turns into a paste or dust in your hand, it’s an indicator that it may be oxidized or has lost its bead integrity, suggesting that it’s time to replace it.
- A simple home microscope can be helpful in determining resin condition. If you don’t see nice, round spheres, it’s a good indicator that the resin beads are broken.
Silica
- Silica is one of the most abundant elements on Earth and commonly found in various water sources. Silica concentrations can range from 5 parts per million to 30 parts per million and can contribute to the taste of mineral water. In fact, synthetic mineral waters often incorporate silica to enhance taste.
- Addressing silica issues in water treatment requires a comprehensive understanding of the water chemistry and careful consideration of other factors that may contribute to scaling or corrosion problems.
- It is a misconception that silica alone causes scaling issues. Scale is typically caused by other factors, and silica may be carried along with it. Silica is highly soluble, so the presence of scale may be due to other dissolved solids or the result of evaporative water leaving residues behind.
- When addressing silica-related issues, it’s important to identify the root cause of the problem, such as the presence of scale in appliances or powdery coatings. Understanding the underlying issue can help in implementing effective water treatment solutions.
- It’s essential to consider the interplay of multiple factors. Depending on the water chemistry, addressing hardness, alkalinity, or TDS may be more effective in mitigating scaling issues.
- Silica is not an ion in water but rather a species that needs to be ionized to be effectively removed. Raising the pH to around 10 or 11 can help ionize silica into silicate, making it more amenable to removal with anion resin. However, the challenge lies in managing the high pH water produced by this method, which can have undesirable odors and other practical limitations.
- The idea of using a “desilicizer,” involves using hydroxide-form anion resin after a water softener to remove silica. However, this approach presents challenges related to high pH and potential scale buildup on the resin.
- Managing interference from silica is crucial when using absorption media for contaminants like arsenic or antimony. ⚠️Lowering the pH of the water can increase the capacity of these media to remove the target contaminants. By reducing the pH, silica becomes less of an interferent, allowing the media to function more effectively. However, even with pH adjustment, the reduction in silica levels achieved by these media may still be limited, perhaps around 25 to 40 percent. In cases where the incoming silica concentration is high, such as 10 ppm, achieving a reduction to 7 ppm may not be sufficient for addressing silica-related issues in water treatment.

Topic: Fluoride Removal

Here’s the funny thing about fluoride.

Not everyone agrees it is helpful as a tooth decay preventative. Check with your municipal water authority to learn whether it is in the drinking water.
The same municipal waste authorities don’t want fluoride in the waste water.

Activated Alumina

For large municipal treatment systems, activated alumina is the most commonly used fluoride removal technology.
According to the WQA Fact Sheet Fluoride Fact Sheet activated alumina may be applied to residential point of entry via tank exchange (PEDI) or disposable filter cartridges. Successful reduction is pH sensitive. Urbans Aqua does not handle activated alumina and we currently know of no businesses which regenerate activated alumina.

Anion Resin

There are anion resins which remove fluoride (along with other ions). These anion resins must be regenerated and may be available via tank exchange or disposable filter cartridges. Urbans Aqua handles a variety of ion exchange resins but we do not put them in exchange tanks or disposable filter cartridges. Urbans Aqua is not currently aware of businesses which regenerate anion resins used for the reduction of fluoride.

Bone Char

About 6 times a year we are asked if we handle bone char. Urbans Aqua does not sell bone char aka bone charcoal. Bone char is carbonized animal bones. Is is effective in reducing fluoride but we don’t use activated carbon which starts with bones, just coconuts and coal.

Reverse Osmosis

Reverse Osmosis will reduce fluoride levels. Urbans Aqua recommends the use of reverse osmosis for the reduction of fluoride. Yes, there will be water waste, but for the average business or homeowner it is a simple and cost effective means of reducing fluoride (among other things). Contact your local dealer for more information.

Find more information here: Fluoride Fact Sheet

Topic: Water Softeners

Which Salt to Do We Use?

Sodium Chloride
- Solar Salt
- Salt pellets
Potassium Chloride
- May be used in place of sodium chloride. If user is clinically monitoring sodium intake suggest use of reverse osmosis drinking water system.
Chemically treated salt specifically designed to clean resin for iron removal softener.

Scale Removal

Softeners prevent scale.
Softened water will dissolve calcium scale very gradually from existing plumbing.
⚠️If your customer has experienced severe scale build up in pipes or water heating devices he/she might not see zero soft water results due to the erosion of the calcium.
- Run cold water from high flow tap to ascertain whether the water is soft -> you may experience the same with iron removal.

Removing Iron with a Water Softener

Ferrous (Fe ++) or clear water iron can be removed by a water softener
- Compensate for hardness & manganese by using this formula:
- Compensated hardness = 2 x iron + 2 x manganese + hardness
- Gallons between regenerations = compensated hardness / capacity of softener
- If the formula yields less than 1,000 gallons between regenerations use a larger softener
Other considerations when using a softener to remove iron:
- A higher salt dosage is required – 10-15 lbs. per cubic foot.
- Fine mesh cation resin yields better results when iron is greater than 3 ppm.
- Use of a resin cleaning system or salt is recommended.
- Do not use an upper screen. Iron will clog the slots.

When do I NOT use a water softener for hardness and/or iron removal?
- Cloudy water iron (ferric Fe+++)
- Heavy sedimentation
- Iron bacteria
- Organic iron
- TDS greater than 450 ppm
- pH higher greater than 8.5

Water Hardness & Low pH

Hardness greater than 10 gpg? Acid neutralizer media will not easily dissolve – place softener before neutralizer. Don’t want to do that? Feed soda ash with chemical feed pump.
- ⚠️When sizing a water softener, add 4-6 additional grains of hardness to your water test to compensate for the additional hardness coming from calcium carbonate neutralizing media.

Should I use an upper screen?

Almost always. If removing iron greater than 2 ppm remove the upper screen. Iron can accumulate on the screen and ruin the efficiency of the softener

What type of resin do I use in a softener?

Always specify softener resin also known as cation resin must be in the sodium form (Na).
⚠️Malfunctioning Res-Up feeders may depress pH and convert the resin from the sodium (Na) form to the Hydrogen H+ form and result in very low pH water.

How long does softener resin last?

For residential service in chlorine & iron free water about 10-15 years.
Where chlorine or chloramine & iron are present about 2-5 years.

Should I install a water softener to remove lead?

A softener may be used to reduce lead however, it should always be backed up by reverse osmosis treatment at the kitchen tap.
Lead will not affect softener operation however, ⚠️ contract with customer to monitor lead levels at least annually.\

Topic: Using a MAV (Motorized Alternating Valve) on a Twin, Tri or Quad Softener or Filter

Using two filter or softener tanks instead of a single tank, helps avoid failed installations. This happens when a single tank bed can no longer function because the contaminant has overwhelmed the bed and fouled the media. This can result in excessive pressure drop, and cloudy, dirty water coming out of the tap.

This problem occurs because the backwash or regenerant water is untreated raw water. The media is getting fouled at the bottom and top of the single tank. Twin tank systems solve the problem. When regeneration or backwash is called for, a portion of the water is drawn from the clean secondary tank.

This is accomplished with the use of a Clack MAV – Motorized Alternating Valve. ⬇️MAV Specification

The MAV is electronically controlled by the valve on top of each tank.
When the primary tank is ready for regeneration or backwash the secondary “clean” tank is shuttled by the MAV and it becomes the primary tank and a portion of its water is used to regenerate/backwash the dirty or exhausted tank. It’s a shuttling method back and forth.

Applications/Options

Use a MAV to draw from a separate clean water source if available, then a single tank can use the clean water source for regeneration water.
When lacking the water volume to backwash a single filter tank, two smaller tanks can be installed.
With the correct electronic package, multiple MAV’s can operate up to four (4) tanks.
- These tanks can run in series or parallel. For example, applications which require zero (0) hardness at higher flow rates require a third or fourth tank.
- Consult us for the proper application of multiple tanks.

Topic: Understanding High Efficiency Water Softeners

How efficient are the softeners you’re selling? Why does it matter? Highly efficient softeners use less salt. Consumers will see salt savings and fewer backbreaking trips from the store to the brine tank. Environmentally there is less chloride discharge to the septic system or municipal waste system.

Typically, 1 cf of resin yields 30,000-34,000 grains if you regenerate with 15 pounds. As regulators and consumers have become more environmentally conscious demand for softeners which use less salt has increased. Highly efficient (HE) softener design is proprietary to the OEM. Through the use of specially designed tanks, distributors and valves, these softeners get 4,300 grains of capacity with just 1 pound of salt.

The easiest way to explain this to think about the way a sponge is used. A sponge effectively cleans a surface when it is damp. If you use a sponge which is soaked with water the cleaning process is messy. The excess water will come out of the sponge onto the surface. The result would be a very wet surface which is only partially clean.

You don’t need 15 pounds of salt to effectively regenerate the HE softener. There are diminishing returns. Using a 1 cubic foot softener here are the numbers:

5 pounds yields 4,311 grains per pound or 19,000 grains
6 pounds yields 3,800 grains per pound or 23,000 grains
15 pounds yields 2,255 grains per pound or 33,000 grains

As you see, you get more total grains when using 15 pounds. The problem with that 15 pounds is that you go through a bag of salt more quickly than if you use 4.5 pounds. A 50-pound bag of salt yields 3.3 regenerations when using 15 pounds per regeneration. Using that same 50-pound bag at 4.5-pound regenerations the yield is 11 regenerations.

⚠️Using less than 4.5 pounds of salt is not recommended. At lower rates the resin beads will not be sufficiently regenerated and shorter run lengths will result.

Additional savings with high efficient softeners include:

Water usage is greatly reduced
Electrical savings – well water pump
Impact on septic system is not as great
Chloride discharge to municipal waste treatment plants is reduced.

These systems have been designed and manufactured by OEM’s who sell entire systems and not just the components. There are OEM’s who sell HE softeners to independent dealers.

Can a High Efficiency softener be used if there is iron and manganese in the water?

In the northeastern U.S. we use water softeners to remove these contaminants. The species of iron and manganese are easily removed because there is low TDS and not much competition of other cations. (It’s mostly a dissolved, low pH water.) These softeners are fondly called “salt hogs” because you need to regenerate with a lot of salt to drive the iron and manganese off of the resin.

A HE softener can be tweaked to increase the salt dosage to compensate for the iron and manganese. Rather than using the full 15 pounds of salt you can cut back to 10 pounds of salt.

Topic: Water Softener Salt

Salt Facts

You can only dissolve 2.647 pounds of salt in a gallon of water.
Bridging is when the salt solidifies in the brine tank.
- Improper design
- Improper setting of floats in brine grids
- Lack of use – vacation home
Cation Softening
- Sodium exchanges with calcium and magnesium or
- Potassium exchange with calcium and magnesium
Anion
- Chloride exchanges with nitrates

Solar Salt

Naturally formed in warmer, drier, arid climates, typically in the Caribbean.
Water is impounded in shallow ponds, so the concentration increases and forms crystals.
It is harvested and cleaned for use.
Has potential to cause “sludge” in brine tanks due to other impurities found
Resin cleaner is added and not impregnated on the salt crystal
Available commercially at most big box or grocery stores.

Pellet Salt

Better than solar salt, not quite as pure as cube salt
Resin cleaner is impregnated into the pellets as an option
Seldom causes bridging
Available commercially at most big box or grocery stores

Cube Salt

Cube salt is a pure salt – 99.8%. Some of it has a resin cleaning additive.
Manufactured though vacuum pan evaporation.
It is produced in Canada
Used by many water treatment dealers to differentiate from products sold by big box outlets.

Potassium Chloride Salt

It takes much more potassium chloride to regenerate a softener
Potassium takes the place of sodium in the exchange reaction

Rock Salt

This is not the rock salt which is used to dissolve ice
It comes from New Orleans and sells primarily in the Mid-West.
Several manufacturers have color sorters which shoot over a light beam to determine purity
Generally not recommended for use in water softeners

Cost

Cost can fluctuate and is driven by over the road transportation expense.
Using a higher quality salt may prevent service calls.
- Dirt stuck in the valve or brine line.
- Bridging
Supply Chain issues have not significantly affected supply. Primary issue is manpower.

Commercial / Industrial Applications

Brine maker placed remotely to enable bulk delivery of salt.
- Cost savings
- Prevents worker injury from lifting bags

Topic: Troubleshooting Tips for Technicians – Residential Water Softener

Before addressing a problem water softener, do a water test and compare the results against previous water tests. If the results are different it may be a simple matter of changing the valve settings.

Listen to the podcast – Troubleshooting Tips for Technicians

Water Softener Inspection

Water on the floor
Dripping, running water
Condensation on the tank
Check for an open bypass. This is a common problem with an easy fix.
Do you hear water running to drain?
- Is the drain in good shape and to code, and where is the drain?
- How far away is it from the softener?
- Is it installed correctly? Air gap?
Is water dripping from the drain?
Is the drain clogged? It won’t draw brine if it’s clogged.

Check the Water Pressure

Well pressure tank
- Is it in good shape and not waterlogged? To tell if it’s waterlogged get your wrench, tap on it and you’ll hear either a ring or a dull thud. It’s waterlogged if it’s a dull thud. So, you’ll need to replace the tank!
- Press the Schrader regulator valve on top and if water comes out, it’s waterlogged.
- When you run some water, did the pump cycle properly? Is the pump in the well cycling properly- not over or under pressurizing?
City or municipal water
- Pressure below 20 psi is problematic because there isn’t enough pressure to create the vacuum to pull the brine.

Check the Brine Tank

Is the brine tank full of water?
Is salt in the brine tank?
Is the water up to the float check?
- A float check prevents it from overflowing (assuming you don’t have the brine tank pumped to drain).
- Add a float check if not already there. This is different from a toilet float which is used to shut off the water.
- A typical brine tank should contain no more than 5 gallons of water.
Does the brine look dirty, muddy, slimy? Hose it out. Brine draw is a delicate process and won’t operate properly if clogged with mud or debris.
What type of salt is being used? Solar salt, salt pellets
Is there a salt bridge?
- The salt can have impurities causing a bridging or cementing effect. The bridge creates a cavern, so salt never falls to the bottom of the tank to make the brine required for regeneration.
- Poke around in the brine tanks with a PVC pipe, not copper, to determine if there is a salt bridge. Or mule kick it. If you hear “kerplunk” chances are there is salt bridging.
- This problem may be caused by poor quality pellet salt or if the system isn’t regenerated for long periods of time as is the case with vacation homes.
- In cases where the system sits for long periods of time, if available- set the valve to fill the brine tank before the regeneration cycle rather than at the end of the cycle. Keep in mind it may delay the regeneration a couple hours for brine make up. ⚠️Does not apply to commercial systems!
Check the “suck”.
- Cycle the softener to the brine draw. Pull the brine line off. Is it sucking air? If you place the brine line on a solid surface, then remove it you will hear a pop which indicates it is sucking air. Water softeners draw brine on a vacuum.
Check the injectors, replace rather than clean.
Clean the injector screens.
Check the drain for clogging in. Is it calcified? If you have a clogged drain, you’re not going to pull the vacuum you need to pull (or suck) the brine out of the brine tank.
Is the drain line too long? We suggest 6 feet above and no longer than 25 feet. If you have a clogged drain, you’re not going to pull the vacuum you need to pull (or suck) the brine out of the brine tank.

Examine the Control Valve

Are the electronics lit?
Are there error codes?
Does the outlet have power and is it wired correctly? (Not to the basement light!)
Analog valves
- Is the timer motor hot or cold? Is the armature going around (visible on Fleck 5600 or 3200 timers)?
- Can you manually cycle the valve without binding?
- Look at the back of the of the valve.
Is brine dripping or are there salt stains because of a loose connection?
- Fleck uses an external brine valve which can leak. Change the brine valve rather than fixing.
Go through the cycle times
- Is your backwash flowing or does it die off? This is a drain or brine draw problem.
- Cycle to brine draw – test it for vacuum or suction (suck!).
- Cycle to refill – is it drawing enough water?

Examine the Fiberglass Tank if Possible

Is it frayed or in good condition? We’ve had cases where homeowners use commercial pressure washers and suck the mineral tank flat. When it pops the fiberglass frays. The internal polyethylene liner can prevent leaks.
If you can shine a flashlight on the tank is the resin cycle the valve to backwash. You should see the resin flowing and dancing as it fully expands to almost 50%. If the bed isn’t expanding the valve o-ring may be blown out, water isn’t forced down the distributor tube and up through the resin.

Topic: Troubleshooting Tips for Technicians – Filters

Filter issues almost always start with improper sizing or lack of backwash water. It’s a more delicate process, not as straightforward as putting salt in a brine tank.

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Filter Inspection

Look around.
- Water on the floor
- Dripping, running water
- Mold
- Condensation on the tank
Check for an open bypass
Check valve for power and error codes
Most importantly – check the drain. If the drain is clogged or constantly running there may be a piston problem, or an internal valve repair required.

To operate properly, most filters beds require expansion of at least 40%.
- Unlike a water softener, filtration is a mechanical process. The contaminant or crud builds up in the bed. Check the manufacturer’s specifications to confirm the backwash rate requirements. As the bed gets dirtier it will require more backwash water.
- If the drain is clogged or restricted the backwash rate won’t be sufficient.
- Is there enough water volume to lift the bed?
  - A typical filter backwashes at a rate of 7-10 gpm for 20 minutes, every three days.
  - Will it maintain the flow rate for 20 minutes? 10 gpm for 20 minutes is 200 gallons. Well water is under pressure; the initial flow is like a dam break – strong and fast. Once relieved of pressure it’s working on water pump power.
  - Do a bucket test. How long does it take to fill a 5-gallon bucket? Or check with a flow test kit.
- Is the raw water intake pressure strong enough to backwash the filter?
  - Is the well tank waterlogged?
  - Is the pump in good shape and powerful enough to maintain pressure?
    - Jet pumps can’t do the job.
  - Water temperature
    - Because water temperature varies manufacturers recommend a backwash range. Backwash Volume Data Chart-3
      - Cold water is denser than warm water so backwash rates will be lower.
      - The warmer the water, the higher the backwash rate.
  - Check the raw water quality with a fast-running outdoor hose if possible.
    - Wells can pulse with crud. The water is clean for a couple minutes and then a slug of dirty water appears.
      - This may be caused by crud weakening and coming off the well casing or from different streams of water pouring into the well.
      - This is tough to observe unless you use a clean white 5-gallon bucket.
  - If the raw water is silty or cloudy it’s difficult to effectively backwash and purge accumulated crud from the filter. Dirty water on bottom, dirty water on top. The rinse cycle might take care of whatever accumulated at the tank bottom after the backwash but not if the well water is too dirty.
Filter Design
- Is the system correctly sized with the proper drain?
- Does the system have the correct valve?
  - Softener valves don’t work on filters. A valve with a 3/8” or 1/2” drain port can’t push enough backwash water up and through the bed. It will work for 6 months, maybe a year, then the bed will get impacted. Filtration will last for maybe a day before breakthrough.
  - Are there error codes or timer issues?

Water Chemistry
- Is the pH too high or too low?
  - Oxidation happens the best at 7 pH or higher. Contaminants stay dissolved in lower pH water. At higher pH they precipitate easily which benefits the oxidation reduction process.
- Is there fuel in the tank?
  - Oxidation requires fuel – peroxide, chlorine, permanganate, oxygen. A catalyst is required to enhance and perpetuate the oxidation/reduction cycle. As you oxidize and reduce, an oxygen molecule comes off the media. It is replaced during backwash with the catalyst rich water.
    - Is the chemical feed pump working correctly?
    - Is there chemical in the solution tank?
    - Is the air induction or ozone induction system clogged?

Topic: Do You Replace or Repair Equipment?

Listen to the Podcast

The decision to replace or repair can be easy in the case of a very old system. Every case is different.
Look at the existing system parts. The wear and tear may point you toward repair or replace. Reevaluate the current situation to determine whether an exact replacement would be required.
Consider replacing time clock systems with demand regeneration systems. Salt savings may result in a faster payback period.

Water Softeners/Filters

Replace (avoid Pandora’s Box and don’t repair)

Age greater than 15-20 years
- Valve parts obsolete
- Resin at end of useful life requiring more regenerations
Value of replacement parts or entire valve, media and labor greater than or close to that of a new system.
- New valve
- New resin/media
  - Not enough media or media turned into rocks (exception being neutralizers with calcite).
- New tank
Home additions or modifications – existing unit too small
- Added hot tub or Jacuzzi
- Addition to home – new bathrooms
- Body wash showers
Original system undersized to gain a competitive advantage
- Excessive regenerations, extra salt expense

Repair

Replace Resin
- Resin generally lasts 10 years or more.
- In applications where city water is run directly through the softener chlorine may decrosslink the resin and it may only last 3 to 5 years.
Valve replacement
- Body of valve is leaking from the seam most likely requires total valve replacement
- Brass valves may internally bypass caused by an internal crack resulting in total valve replacement.
- It is possible to install a different brand valve – e.g., replace Fleck with Clack.
  - Clack kept the inlet and outlet orientation the same as Fleck.
  - Autotrol’s inlet and outlet are switched.
  - When replacing valve consider existing distributor tube.
    - Is the diameter 1” or 13/16”? Fleck 7000 valves = 32mm
    - Height of distributor
      - Autotrol – 1-1/8” above tank
      - Erie – 1/4” below top of tank
      - Fleck – flush with tank
      - Clack – fits all
Valve repair – Clack, Autotrol, Fleck
- With regular maintenance, valves can last up to 10-15 years.
- Fleck requires more labor and parts but are very robust. The Fleck 5600, 2510, 2500, and 2750 valves can be rebuilt many, many times. On problem water rebuild every 3 years otherwise every 5 years.
- Replaceable parts include:
  - Seal & spacer kits
  - Timer motors
  - O-rings
  - External brine valves
  - Teflon© coated piston
- Clack – easy to repair with less labor.
  - One piece seal stacks
  - Polymer Piston
  - Uniform drive motor (same across all valves)
  - No external brine valves
- Autotrol – the most robust electronics program
  - Easy to fix
  - Flapper system vs piston; flapper very rarely wears out
  - Parts no longer available for 155,163 and 168
  - 255 Autotrol has a quick disconnect where it’s easy to take out and replace the timer.

UV Systems

Systems last a long time because they are made of stainless steel and must be maintained yearly.
- Wear parts
  - Ballasts are electronic, some with electronic boards. Check with manufacturer.
  - Quartz tube, bulb and orings must be changed yearly.

Chemical Feed Systems

Stenner – infinitely rebuildable except when the electronics fail. At that point replacement is required.
Chem-Tech 100- use the KOP Kit repair kit. Replace the rubber diaphragm and fittings.

Topic: Ozone Filters

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Ozone is a very effective way to supercharge a filter media bed. The most common medias are:

GreensandPlus™
Katalox Light®
Pyrolox® Advantage
Catalytic Carbon such as Calgon’s CENTAUR
Cerapure™-MAC (not as common as it is just being introduced into the residential market)

To operate properly the pH should be above 6.5, although above 7 is ideal, and the media should be regenerated every 3 days to ensure the catalytic reaction continues.

If you don’t have a catalyst, you don’t have the fuel to perpetuate the reaction needed to oxidize and filter the contaminant. As you oxidize and reduce, the catalyst is used up. Without regeneration the oxidation potential is gradually used up and the media fails.

The common regenerants are:

Chlorine
- Degrades quickly especially if exposed to air and sunlight.
- Messy can irreversibly damage clothing
- Difficult to transport
Hydrogen Peroxide is a very unstable liquid oxygen
- Degrades quickly
- Messy, can damage clothing
- Difficult to transport
Oxygen -O₂
- Weak oxidizer
Ozone – O₃ Trioxygen
- Powerful oxidizer
- Gasses off quickly to O₂

Systems

Systems using chlorine and peroxide require the filter and a chemical feed system.
Oxygen type systems incorporate a valve which “sucks air”. Known as AIO valves they pull in air to provide a continual flow of oxygen as the regenerant. No chemical feed necessary.
Like AIO systems the ozone generator is incorporated on the valve and operates similarly to a softener valve. Rather than pulling brine to regenerate, a signal is sent to the ozone generator to operate and supply ozone. Air, supercharged with ozone, is used to renew the media.

AIO valves use the surrounding atmosphere to regenerate. The filter could be in a closet or basement where the air is moldy or moist. We’ve seen cases where the media bed becomes slimly or moldy. Ozone is purified air which will keep the bed clean and free of slime.

Considerations when using ozone systems

Maintenance of the ozone filter is annual, not continual like chemical feed systems.
- The corona tube needs to be cleaned using manufacturers’ directions.
pH affects the media bed; the ozone renews the catalyst. The higher the pH of the water the faster the catalytic reaction.
Regenerate every three days. The ozone system creates an ozone bubble in the top of the filter tank. This bubble needs to be refreshed every three days.
The drier the air, the stronger the ozone.

Topic: Distributions Systems – Tank Internals

Riser Tube, Standpipe, Distributor Tube

A distributor tube consists of a plastic or stainless-steel tube attached to a distributor, also called a diffusor, collector or basket.
Its purpose is to produce even flow through an ion exchange or filter media bed. It also functions as a retainer of the media in the tank.
The screen size of the basket should be appropriate for the media being used.
The tube length is cut to match the tank size and valve.

Question: When should a gravel sub-fill be used in a mineral tank?

When to Use Gravel Sub-Fill

Equipment	Yes/No	Comment
Carbon Filters - Backwashable Type	Yes	If recycling carbon, separation of gravel from carbon is required.
Carbon Filters VOC Removal	No	Backwashing a carbon filter used for VOC removal will upset the mass transfer zone and may result in leakage of the contaminants.
Acid Neutralizers	Yes	Upflow & Downflow systems
Softening - Upflow	No	N/A
Softening - Downflow	Yes	Creates a better flow pattern.

Hub & Lateral Tank Internals

For systems incorporating tank sizes above 14”, a hub and lateral design distribution system is used.
Hub and laterals are available in PVC, ABS, poly pro and Stainless Steel.
Valve size dictates the size of the distributor which in turn dictates the size of the hub.
Laterals for filters and ion exchange differ in slot size.
- Filter media type and backwash rates vary and generally require a slightly larger slot opening than ion exchange resin.
  - Ion exchange laterals usually have .010” slots whereas filter laterals slots are .020”.
Performance of large commercial and industrial systems is impacted by distribution design.

Urbans Aqua offers standard and custom distribution systems.

Topic: Activated Carbon

GAC Specifications – What do they measure?

Iodine Number

How closely in size is the contaminant to a molecule of iodine? The higher the iodine number the better the removal of molecules which closely resemble iodine. Iodine is a small molecule therefore it measures ability to adsorb lower molecular weight smaller substances.

Molasses Number

Molasses number Is a measurement of the degree of decolorization of a standard molasses solution. It is a relative guideline for measuring the capacity of the carbon to remove color molecules.

Abrasion Number

Demonstrates the carbons ability to withstand degradation during handling – before and after it is placed into service. Lower abrasion numbers result in more dust and fines.

Density, Backwashed & Drained (BWD)

This is the number of pounds required to fill a cubic foot of volume capacity. ⚠️The density of activated carbon types varies.

TCN – Trace Capacity Number

The Trace Capacity Number measures the number of high energy pores in an activated carbon product. These high energy pores are required to remove difficult to adsorb contaminants, such as MTBE. The theory behind the test is similar to the Iodine number, where the iodine number reports the mg Iodine per gram of carbon in a standard iodine solution. Since iodine is so strongly adsorbed, it is essentially fills all of the adsorption pores (high energy and low energy). The TCN number uses a more difficult to adsorb species and reports the mg loaded per gram of carbon. A higher TCN number on a carbon would indicate a higher number of high energy pores, which would suggest better loading in an application with difficult to remove contaminants.

Ash

The ash content of a carbon can be defined as the noncombustible mineral matter that is contained in activated carbon. It is the residue that remains after the combustion of a carbonaceous material and is normally defined on a weight basis. The ash content is dictated by the raw material used to manufacture an activated carbon product and is why a high purity raw material is necessary to produce a high purity activated carbon product. There are also additional post-processing steps, such as acid washing, to reduce the amount of ash content in an activated carbon product.

Water Soluble Ash

Ash measures the level of purity. It is the inorganic residue left after the heating process. It consists of silica, calcium, alumina, iron, magnesium with a potential for arsenic. Carbon may be acid washed or water rinsed to reduce ash content. Water extractable ash has the highest impact on the product quality as it affects the effluent.

Can Activated Carbon be regenerated?

Activated carbon cannot be regenerated like ion exchange resin. Activated carbon can be reactivated by carbon manufacturers. The reactivation process is similar to the original activation process. The resulting product is distributed for waste water applications. Municipalities contract to reactivate segregated lots for re-use.

It is possible to reactivate activated carbon with steam. Beverage manufacturers have large carbon filters which have steam injection. The heat from the steam will push off the more weakly held contaminants freeing up pores for continued use. The steam also sanitizes the carbon bed. Steam reactivation will restore the life of the carbon bed but eventually the cost outweighs the benefit and a new carbon bed must be installed.

Which type of carbon do I use?

Hydrogen Sulfide (H2SO4)
- Use Catalytic Carbon only in a single tank with peroxide – download article here ⬇️Applying Peroxide
- In presence of sulfur reducing bacteria (black slime) treat with chlorine and KDF cubes. (KDF Cubes are currently out of production, stay tuned for updates. Posted 9/24/24)
- Centaur Specifications – ⬇️Coal Base Activated Carbon Centaur Catalytic Carbon Brochure
- Jacobi CXMCA Specifications – ⬇️Jacobi CX-MCA
- KDF Cubes Information (KDF Cubes are currently out of production, stay tuned for updates. Posted 9/24/24) https://www.urbansaqua.com/products/filter-media/kdf-cubes/
Chlorine
- Use any carbon for chlorine removal. It is a chemical reaction is on the surface of the carbon similar to ion exchange.
- Backwashing extends the life by removing sediment from the carbon bed.
- Rebed or change out the activated carbon when black particles or gray water is seen in standing water – such as toilet bowls; or when there is increased pressure drop across the carbon bed.
Tannins
- Except to polish after primary treatment activated carbon is not recommended for tannin removal.
VOC (Volatile Organic Contaminants)
- ⚠️ There are too many variables contact the Urbans Aqua for help.
PFAS POS POA PFOA
- Only coal based carbon should be used. Calgon F-400 is a good choice.
- Dual tank operation – worker / guard with sample port between and after.
- Strongly recommend use of a totalizing meter after guard tank.
Taste and Odor
- Any carbon will work.
Pre-treatment to RO
- Coconut base carbon is physically harder and produces very little fines.
High Purity Applications
- Acid Washed Carbon removes dissolved, naturally occurring metals.

How to remove PFOA & PFOS from drinking water using Calgon Carbon.

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Choose the right carbon – Calgon Carbon has been working with PFOA for 15 years and their studies and experience shows that coal base carbon is the way to go.
- F-400 works very well and isn’t as expensive as F-600AR+. ⬇️Coal Base Activated Carbon Filtrasorb 400
- F-600AR+ is a great choice though on the pricey side. It must be used in some states including New York. ⬇️Calgon FILTRASORB 600AR+
- If you choose another brand of coal base carbon be sure it has been tested and will not throw off arsenic.
The empty bed contact time (EBCT) for PFOA is 10+ minutes and can be as long as 20 minutes.
Use multiple carbon tanks (lead/lag) with a sample port between them.
Backwash with treated water if possible.
After installation, let the system run for a couple of days before drawing a sample for testing.
EPA limit for PFOA & PFOS is 70 ppt – that’s parts per trillion. ⬇️EPA PFOS PFOA Health Advisory
- The EPA is addressing PFAS ⬇️EPA PFAS Action Fact Sheet 021319-final-508compliant
- ⚠️The limit varies state by state so make sure you check before installing. It’s never higher than 70 ppt. ⬇️PFAS Contamination by State
- Some states have placed restrictions on arsenic (naturally occurring) which may come off the carbon.
Waste & Handling
- Carbon used for PFAS removal should be incinerated and not land filled.
- The generator (homeowner) is responsible for the disposal of the spent carbon. However, you should consider talking with your Calgon Carbon supplier who can assist in obtaining a Carbon Acceptance Number (CAN). There is cost associated with the testing and application but it is a green and sustainable means of handling the spent carbon. The spent carbon is reactivated and reused in applications where virgin carbon isn’t required.
- There are no special handling requirements when removing the carbon used to remove PFOA and PFOS. Handle as you would any other activated carbon rebed. Gloves, dust mask and safety glasses.
Calgon Carbon Literature: ⬇️PFC-Webinar-Presentation-1-30-17

What is Enhanced Coconut Carbon?

According to Calgon Carbon enhanced coconut is basically a standard coconut product that undergoes additional processing (chemical fluxing agents and thermal conditions) to transform a coconut’s pore structure to be more like a reagglomerated bituminous coal-based product. Coconut based activated carbons traditionally have a very tight pore structure (microporous) while reagglomerated bituminous coal based products have a broad range of pore structures (micro, meso, and macroporous).

Chloramine Removal with Activated Carbon

To meet tougher THM (trihalomethane) standards municipalities are moving to chloramine disinfection.

Chlorine creates higher levels of trihalomethanes.
Chloramine is more stable and a much weaker oxidant so resultant THM levels are lower.
- Helps protect the consumer by reducing the cancer-causing disinfection byproducts.

Drill down and it’s a little more complicated:

In potable water, chloramine can exist as monochloramine, dichloramine and trichloramine.
Because municipal water is delivered with a pH between 6 and 9, monochloramine is the predominant species used for disinfecting.
Monochloramine is also the most difficult type of chloramine to remove using carbon.

Example 1: Homeowner who wants to remove all traces of chloramine (or chlorine) and the THMs from their city water. No problem? Think again.

In a side by side comparison of standard and catalytic carbon the removal efficiency is initially the same.
On standard carbon a slower removal rate occurs as the catalytic sites are used up (and supplanted by carbon oxides).

Because the chloramine reaction is catalytic in nature, activated carbons with enhanced catalytic activity are more efficient, last longer and enable you to use smaller equipment.

Before prescribing the correct solution, ask the question – are we removing chlorine or chloramine?
Chlorine -> Activated Carbon – 12×40, coal, coconut (piece of cake).
Chloramine -> Catalytic Carbon such as Centaur® -> 12×40 in a smaller tank

Example 2: The pH of the water we were treating was not between 6 and 9. It was around 4. Even though the water was being treated with carbon there was residual chlorine which set off alarms. If the pH was high, no problem. Of course we contacted the experts at Calgon for help. Their first question – Were we dealing with chlorine or chloramine?

Long story short – The municipal water being disinfected with chloramine. At the lower pH the species is trichloramine, or nitrogen trichloride.

With activated carbon the catalytic reaction with chloramine is opposite of chlorine.

Chlorine destruction is enhanced at low pH.
Chloramine destruction is enhanced at high pH.

The trichloramine was sneaking through the carbon because the pH was low. The solution – either raise the pH or use a catalytically enhanced coal base carbon such as Centaur® to resolve.

Topic: Arsenic Removal

Arsenic is a grey, semi-metal element. Arsenic enters ground water from both natural sources and human activity. Contamination can sometimes be traced to deep-water brines produced from gas and oil well drilling. It is also be found in wood preservatives and may be a byproduct of herbicide production.

Health Effects

Arsenic has a primary drinking standard because it is known to have health effects when present in drinking water. Skin lesions, circulatory problems and nervous disorders can occur. Prolonged exposure may result in skin, bladder, lung and prostate cancer. For this reason, the EPA has set the MCL to 0.01 mg/L (micrograms per liter). Arsenic removal from wells

Arsenic Reduction/Removal from Water

Arsenic is one of the hardest ions to remove from water. It usually occurs in water as either arsenate (AsV) or arsenite (AsIII). Test results report the total arsenic concentration including arsenic as arsenate and arsenic as arsenite. Aresenite is a greater health concern and more difficult to remove. For this reason, most treatment solutions start by adding an oxidant to the water to convert all arsenic to the arsenate form. Oxidation can be accomplished through the addition of chlorine, ozone or greensand. Note: Chloraminated water utilizing only monochloramine (NH₂Cl) will not completely oxidize AsIII to AsV).

Heating or boiling water will not remove arsenic from water, it may increase the concentration as the water is evaporated off.

To determine the best removal treatment the water must first be tested by a certified lab.

Removal methods include Activated Alumina, Manganese Greensand Filtration, Distillation, and Reverse Osmosis. Urbans Aqua offers specialty products – Purolite’s FerrIX™ A33E and Graver’s Metsorb®. All products used for arsenic removal should be WQA Gold Seal Certified.

Before embarking on a treatment regiment, a full water analysis is necessary. Since Arsenic is anionic, you must test for competing anions. Both Purolite and Graver have a water profile work sheet that must be filled out, so they can better estimate bed life. Contact Urbans Aqua for equipment system design.

Arsenic Removal Products – Pros & Cons

Activated Alumina

Pros

Easy maintenance
Potential for non-hazardous disposal as solid waste

Cons

Highly selective for AsV; AsIII must be oxidized
pH < 6.5 or lower if silica is present

Distillation

Pros

Reduces to < 2 ppb

Cons

Only practical for small quantities of water

Ion Exchange Anion SBA I & II

Pros

Effective for AsV
Optimum pH >7

Cons

AsIII must be oxidized and removed prior to resin bed.
Nitrate, fluoride, selenium & sulfate will compete with AsV for exchange sites resulting in earlier exhaustion.

Manganese Greensand

Pros

Effective for AsV

Cons

AsIII must be oxidized and removed prior to greensand filter.
Iron must be present in raw water equal to or greater than the arsenic.

Reverse Osmosis

Pros

Effective for AsV

Cons

AsIII must be oxidized and removed prior to RO.
Care must be taken to prevent damage to membrane.

FerrIX A33E

Pros

Selective removal of arsenic.
pH for treatment 7
Operates similarly to ion exchange resin.
EBCT 2.5-5 Minutes (typically 3 minutes).
No Regeneration
Low pressure differential

Cons

Potential for nitrate dumping.
Offsite regeneration available for large installations.

Metsorb®

Listen to the Podcast for More Info on Metsorb

Pros

Removes AsV & AsIII.
EBCT 1.5-3 Minutes.
Also removes lead, cadmium, copper, zinc, chromium+6 & selenium.
Potential for non-hazardous deposal as solid waste.
No regeneration

Cons

Potential for high pressure differential

Topic: Common Residential Installation Problems & Challenges

Podcast – Look Before You Leap Installation Errors Can Be Avoided With a Site Survey

Not enough water to backwash filters.
- Examples:
  - Carbon filter backwash rate = 8-10 gallons per square foot.
- - Greensandplus/Pyrolox Advantage backwash rate = 12-15 gallons per square foot.
  - Birm backwash rate = 10-12 gallons per square foot
  - Backwash Rates
- How old is the well pump? Should it be replaced?
- Is the well pump a jet pump? If so, consider replacing. Jet pumps may not be powerful enough.
Electrical Issues
- Test the circuit with a Voltmeter
  - Be sure you are plugging the system into 120V not a 220V outlet.
- Does the electrical system look like a spider-web? Is lamp wire coming into the outlet box?
  - Suggest the owner invest in an upgrade before adding equipment.
- Is the system wired into the light switch? Turn the light on it works, off – it doesn’t.
- Kinetico Systems don’t use electric – above does not apply.
Inadequate space for the installation
- Crawl space installations – Is the system properly designed? Capacity may be compromised because the equipment is smaller than normal.
- UV light – What is the overall length of the system? Is there enough space for bulb replacement? Bulb replacement requires space double the bulb length.
Drain water discharge
- Do not discharge to the well pit.
- Be sure to use an air gap when direct connecting to a septic or drain.
  - An illegal drain is a direct connection with no air gap. Air gap should be 1-1/2 times the diameter of the drainpipe. Check local codes.
- Drain is too slow – can’t accept the volume of water from the backwash.
  - Don’t take their word for it – flush some toilets, run the spigots.
    - Will the water backup in the basement?
    - Will the septic system handle it?
      - Take a walk outside to see if there are ugly gray spots or a bright green swamp over the septic drain field?
    - Do the state/local authorities allow installation of water softeners?
      - Delaware requires a waiver; check with your local government before installing.
      - Always use a high efficiency demand softener system. No time clock regenerations.
What is the water temperature?
- Temperature affects efficiency of Reverse Osmosis.
- Colder water is denser so there is more lift. More backwash water lift than warm water system.
Improper grounding.
- Cable company, telephone company, security company equipment is grounded to the copper pipe sending milliamps in the plumbing resulting in pinholes and leaks.
- Ground the plumbing to an outdoor ground with a proper pole, hammered into the ground.

Common Commercial/Industrial Installation Problems & Challenges

See all of the above.
Will the system fit?
- How wide are the mineral and brine tanks? How wide is the doorway, elevator, etc.?
- Is the ceiling high enough to accommodate the system?
Are the drains open and available to use?
Is there enough water and water pressure to operate properly?
If an electrician is required – who will provide?
Is current electrical up to code?
Do you know who are you working with? Is everyone on the customer’s team aware of the scope of work?
- Plant manager, boiler operator, purchasing agent, etc.
How will the system be transported?
- Is it going up a stairway to a mezzanine? How will it be moved, who will move it – customer or vendor (you)?
- Forklift – for delivery purposes and/or installation/rebed purposes.
  - Is a forklift available for your use?
  - Who is authorized to drive it?
  - Will you have to wait, or will it be ready for use?
  - Do you have to rent a forklift?
What are the safety regulations?
- Will there be a safety meeting at the start of the job? How long will it be?
- Clothing – long sleeves, no shorts, steel toed shoes, etc.
- Facial hair allowed?
- Safety meeting prior to job start.
- Lock Out, Tag Out
- Confined Space
- Is the facility union or non-union?
- Is there adequate parking? Sites may have restricted areas.
⬇️Delaware Water Softener Waiver
⬇️Backwash Volume Data Chart_3

Topic: Resins – Mixing Cation and Anion Resin in One Tank – (NOT MIXED BED RESIN)

Podcast – Mixing Resins for Fun & Sport

The resins we are discussing here are as follows:

Anion Resin – Chloride form specialty resin used to remove sulfates, nitrates, tannins, alkalinity
Cation Resin – sodium form softening resin used to remove hardness – calcium, magnesium

When these resins are in separate tanks the cation always goes ahead of the anion tank. As a result, the hardness minerals are removed before the water goes through the anion resin.

Both are regenerated with sodium chloride – salt. Use of this common regenerant creates the opportunity to combine the resins in one tank. Anion resin is lighter and rests at the top of the resin bed; cation is beneath it.
- Sodium (Na) exchanges with hardness minerals
- Chloride (Cl) exchanges with anions – sulfate, nitrate, etc.

A potential problem may occur as a result if the water hardness is above 6-8 grains hardness.

During regeneration the ion “exchange” happens.
The minerals (calcium) are being washed away and the salts (contaminant varies depending on desired outcome) are also being washed away.
These “waste” products foul the anion resin and combine to create calcium carbonate, a cement like substance which blocks the drain.

How to avoid the problem.

Use separate tanks for cation and anion.
Add phosphoric acid to the brine. By acidifying the calcium remains in
- Pro Res Care Easy Feeder (Manufactured by Pro Products may purchase direct or from local supplier)
- Res Up Feeder (Manufactured by Clack – purchase only from local supplier)

How to repair.

Clean the drain line by breaking up the calcification.
Portions of seal pack and injectors may need to be replaced. Best to rebuild the valve before putting back in.

Topic: Removal of Radiological Contaminants ☢️

Uranium, radium, are radiologicals which are not gaseous. Radon is gaseous. Uranium and radium are very easily removed from water because they’re ionically sticky. They will adhere and accumulate on anion and cation resins during the treatment process. If the system isn’t properly operated and maintained the radiologicals can accumulate resulting in harmful levels of radioactivity.

Uranium Treatment

Type II anion resin, which is also used for dealkalization and NON-selective nitrate removal.
- Static or non-regenerable
- Regenerable
  - Brine waste will have Uranium.
- Titanium dioxide adsorbents such as Graver’s HMRG ⬇️MetsorbBrochure
  - Static, cannot be regenerated
  - Backwashable – radiologicals adhere to the media

Radium 226, 228 Treatment

Cation resin, which is also used for water softening
- Static or non-regenerable
- Regenerable
  - Brine waste will have Radium
- Reverse Osmosis.
  - Waste will contain Radium

Sizing up a Uranium System Using Type 2 Anion Resin ⬇️A300E Bulletin

A full cation, anion water analysis is mandatory because there are other contaminant ions which may impact removal efficiency. This enables the resin manufacturer to model the system and estimate life expectancy of the resin.
Keep the chain of custody clean if you are helping your customer to dispose of the resin.
The DOT (Department of Transportation) regulates and checks for radioactivity. The limit is 335,000 ppb (parts per billion).
The landfill will check for radioactivity.
The MCL (Maximum Contaminant Level) for uranium is 30 pci/l.
Formula for sizing a uranium system:
- Requires 2.5 minutes EBCT (Empty Bed Contact Time). That is how many minutes the water must pass through your column of treatment. The resin manufacturer will advise EBCT.
- Determine the customer’s gpm (gallons per minute).
- Multiply the EBCT by the GPM.
- Divide by 7.481. (Number of gallons in a cubic foot.)
  - Example – customer has 44 ppb of uranium.
    - 5 x 6 gpm = 15
    - 15 ÷481 = 2.0005 cf³
  - This home will require a 2 cubic foot system.
- Life expectancy of the system – remove no more than 335,000 ppb (per DOT regs).
  - Divide 335,000 ppb by the contaminant level (the amount of uranium in the customer’s water) equals the number of BV (Bed Volumes).
  - Multiply the number of BV by 7.481 to determine number of gallons which can be treated.
    - Example continues:
      - 335,000 ÷ 44 = 7,613 BV
      - 7,613 BV x 7.431 = 57,572 gallons treated by each tank
      - 57,572 gal. x 2 = 113,144 gallons for 2 tanks.
    - New example – customer has 44 ppb uranium and house gpm is 7.
      - System size:
        
        5 x 7 = 17.5
        
        5 ÷ 7.481 = 2.33 – round up to 2.5 cf³
        
        This home requires a 2.5 cubic foot system
      - Life Expectancy
        
        335,000 ÷ 44 = 7,613 BV
        
        7,613 BV x 7.431 = 57,572 gallons treated by each tank
        
        57,572 x 2.5 cf³ = 143,930 gallons treated by system
      - Regenerable system sizing:
        
        Increases the amount which can be treated by 5.
        
        Check with local municipal authorities before installation.
Install a water meter with an alarm which will shut off the water to avoid overrunning the system.
Test the water after 6 months and again after 1 year.
⚠️Do not use potassium chloride (KLife) in a regenerable system as it will hold uranium.
As with any anion application a shift in pH may occur.

Half-Life Of Radiological Contaminants

For more information on Half-Life see:

Topic: Common Substitutions – Valves, Filter Media, Activated Carbon & Resin.

Cation Softening Resin

No 8% crosslink resin in stock? Try 10% crosslink resin. 10% is commonly used on city water systems where chlorine exceeds the resin specification of less than 0.10 ppm.

Iron Reduction/Removal Products

Greensandplus® and Pyrolox®Advantage- substitute one for the other.
Clack’s FilterOx™ is Pyrolox®Advantage under a different name.
Katalox Light is a direct drop in – be aware of the increase in pH.
Cerapure-MAC – also a direct drop in with bacteriostatic properties to inhibit growth of slime.
Birm™ is not a direct drop in

Multimedia – Garnet, Gravel, Sand, Anthracite

Rather than multimedia try Filter-Ag Plus® aka Turbidex™.
- Less frequent backwashing saves water/waste water.
- Filters down to 5 microns.
Chemsorb can be used in place of multimedia.
Filter-Ag® – is not a direct substitute for multimedia or Filter-Ag Plus®

Arsenic Media

Purolite FerrIX® A33E and ResinTech ASM-10-HP are interchangeable.
- BEFORE APPLYING CONTACT YOUR SUPPLIER or OEM WITH COMPLETE WATER ANALYSIS!
Graver Metsorb® HMRG is not a direct substitute but should be considered for arsenic and heavy metals removal/reduction

Activated Carbon

Use 12×40 Coconut or 12×40 Coal for dechlorination.
- For the coal based carbon the initial backwash may be longer but its ability to remove chlorine is the same.
Calgon’s CENTAUR is a coal based catalytic carbon and depending on the application CENTAUR C or Jacobi CX-MCA or Haycarb WAC can be substituted.

Stenner Pumps

Stenner’s new S10P can be substituted for Econ FP. It has a built-in PCM.

System Valves

Building a system? If you can’t find a Fleck 9000 or 9100 and consider Clack WS1 Twin or vice versa.
Or – use 2 Clack valves, WS1EE, and put a MAV, Motorized Alternating Valve, between them and it acts as a twin system.

Distributor Tubes

Distributor tube broken? Use a 3/4” schedule 40 coupling and pipe and glue it together.
Don’t use schedule 80!

Topic: Best Practices for Water Tests

Listen to the Podcast

Meeting with the Customer
- Talk to the end user about what they’re experiencing.
- What do they see, taste, smell?
- Are there health considerations?
  - Allergies
  - Autoimmune disease
- Talk about contaminants which can’t be seen or tasted, regional or neighborhood issues. Share these maps with your customer. WQRF Contaminant Map & USGS Contaminant Dashboard There is information about local or regional contaminants such as arsenic and uranium.
It is important to have water tested before commercial or industrial processes like fracking take place.
Use the appropriate test for the application.
- Simple Water Analysis
- VOC, TOC, Pesticides
- Complete anion, cation
Grabbing a Raw Sample
- Bypass the equipment and take your samples from the well tank.
- Flush using a washing machine hose.
- Well tanks collect a lot of crud. This may cause a false or elevated iron or manganese reading.
Grabbing a Treated Sample
- Take the sample after the equipment.
Grabbing a Bacteria Sample
- Collect from the right type of sink.
  - Don’t collect from a faucet that has one valve for hot and cold because bacteria can collect in there.
- Remove the aerator.
- Use an alcohol swab to disinfect the end of the spigot.
- Wear gloves. If you don’t have gloves wash your hands thoroughly before collecting the sample.
- When you take the cap off the bacteria bottle, don’t set it down, you can contaminate your own sample. Hold the cap in your hand while filling the bottle to avoid cross contamination.
Grabbing a VOC Sample
- VOC vials are small and have a preservative in them.
- When collecting certified samples, you’re probably going to have to add acid to that sample as well, but this typically isn’t done by dealers. Instead make sure you fill the bottle and there are no air bubbles.
- Don’t flush out the preservatives that are in the vials. Add a little extra water to the cap before capping it. This helps displace any air bubbles and forms a meniscus.
- Don’t overfill it to avoid losing the preservative.
Grabbing a PFOS sample
- Contact the lab for more information.
Finding a Laboratory
- Make sure the lab’s certified for what you need.
- Make sure you have a good, helpful point of contact.
  - If you’re not sure what to test for, your point of contact should be able to walk you through and make suggestions.
  - Smaller labs and industry specific labs are geared towards helping you determine what you should test and tell you proper detection levels.
  - Establish a good relationship with your point of contact at a lab. Contact them when you need a little extra help or guidance on unfamiliar procedures.

Laboratories

Topic: Avoid Cross Connections with an Airgap

LIsten to the podcast

A cross connection is when a drain line of a water treatment device is directly connected to a sewer system without an approved air gap.

Information which follows is excerpted from the WQA Backflow Toolkit

In every home, there is both potable drinking water and non-potable waste waterflow in the combined plumbing/wastewater system.
One of the key functions a properly designed plumbing system is to keep these separated. The consequences of potentially allowing wastewater to come through a kitchen faucet, for example, are obviously dangerous.
One way this hazardous mixing takes place is through backflow. This is possible when wastewater from a drain line runs backward, entering a potable drinking water system. Backpressure takes place when the force downstream increases to a level that is stronger than the incoming water supply pressure. A boiler, for instance, might create high pressure and push water back into the pipe that would normally provide intake.
There are numerous ways to prevent backflow. Prevention assemblies may be used, such as a check valve.
Usually, these assemblies include test cocks and shut- off valves. In that case, plumbing codes require that these be tested when they are installed, relocated, or repaired and, in many cases, they need to be tested every year after installation.
To require a costly backflow prevention device where in reality an air gap is sufficient protection, is an unnecessary burden to all involved.

Water treatment devices and backflow

Many plumbing codes recognize that water treatment devices do not require further backflow prevention and that contamination of the unit can be prevented with a simple air gap as effectively as when applied for dish washers and common faucets.

The USEPA maintains a list of “high hazard” devices and systems within the EPA “Cross Connection Control Manual. These are deemed to be at greater risk for backflow problems. Significantly, water softeners or other water treatment devices are not listed by the EPA as high hazard devices indicating that it is not a potential health risk that would require more backflow prevention than an air gap.

In the AWWA manual, “Recommended Process for Backflow Prevention and Cross-Connection Control,” AWWA supports the position that only an air gap is required to prevent water treatment filters from being contaminated from drain contaminants.

It states, “An air gap separation or a reduced pressure principle backflow-prevention assembly is recommended at the service connection when the auxiliary water supply is or may be contaminated to a degree that would constitute a high hazard.” Because a water treatment device is only being protected from contamination coming in (as opposed to being a potential source of contamination itself), an air gap would suffice without the need for additional backflow prevention.

Topic: Ozone Generators

Listen to the Podcast

What is an ozone generator?

An ozone generator creates an electrical field, a plasma in some generators, and this takes the ambient oxygen in the air, O₂, and transfers it to O₃, which is ozone.
Ozone has a short life and when it breaks down in water, it turns into nothing more than oxygen.
Ozone has the benefit of being non-reactive. You put chlorine in water, it can react with organic matter and produce disinfection by products such as trihalomethane.

Ozone Generator Improvements

The greatest improvement in ozone generators has been improved power supplies.
- Depending on the models – most of them have transformers. If you put in too high a voltage, it will put out too high a voltage. Depending on where you live and the power grid the voltage will vary all over the place.
- On older model generators the voltage would spike up maybe to 170 volts, typically, to 135 or 140. The transformer would go right along and crank up the output voltage.
- With improvements the newest units are much more reliable although there are older units that have been operating successfully for 20 years.

Ozone Applications

Eliminate sulfur odor and iron.
Nothing comes close to ozone when it comes to removing manganese.
- Manganese tends to have a different valence that doesn’t really lend itself to be easily removed, especially where manganese exceeds one part per million.
Combine ozone with a basic primary oxidant mineral of your choice such as Pyrolox Advantage or Cerapure. As long as it’s properly applied and maintained the system will have a long life.
We suggest ultraviolet for bacteria, but when faced with large amounts of very, very polluted water, a good injection of ozone – at the right level – will do things that you can’t do with ultraviolets, simply because it works around the turbidity in the water much better. Whereas ultraviolet has a problem with turbidity.

Using Ozone Generators

Unlike a pump which pushes the chemical into the water stream, ozone is sucked into the water stream. The type of venturi used will affect the efficiency of how much mass transfer of ozone you can get.
- Mazzei makes a very good Venturi which has 99 percent mass transfer, which means you’re able to mix it into the water very well. The better you mix it into the water, the better it can oxidize the iron, manganese, sulfur, or whatever else you’re trying to oxidize.
The generator is activated by water flow.
A retention tank isn’t required because ozone works fast. Depending on the type and concentration of bacteria, ozone will kill bacteria, 3,200 times as fast as chlorine.
Ozone residual lasts 10 minutes, 15 minutes max before it turns back into oxygen.
- A typical application would be to place a Venturi in front of a pressure tank, and the time that the water spent going in and out of the pressure tank would be more than enough to perform its oxidation.
- If you’re running a steady stream of water, you would then run it into an oxidation filter with the media of your choice.
When properly maintained these systems can last 10 to 20 years.

Limitations

The drier the air, the more ozone you’ll produce, and the less byproducts you’ll produce.
⚠️Nitric acid is a byproduct of ozone. It has not shown to be a major problem over time to Dave, but you need to be aware when cleaning the generator tubes that there is nitric acid on the tubes. It is sticky and yellow. If you get it on your pants, it will burn a hole. If you get it on your fingers it will sting.
⚠️Never use nylon fittings and expose them to ozone. They will very quickly look like you took a propane torch to the fitting, it will literally melt it.
⚠️Avoid using ozone where there is a large quantity of aerobic bacteria present.

Why Customers Like Ozone Systems

Ozone systems have replaced many chlorination systems that were being used for sulfur, iron, etc. The customers are happy they don’t have to handle and keep track of the chemicals. The lack of ongoing maintenance is a big plus with the customer.

Topic: Understanding Ion Exchange Resin

How long will the resin last?

In the presence of oxidants cations may last 3 to 5 years; under the same conditions anion resin may last 1 to 2 years.
Cation
- Crosslinking holds the bead together. When the crosslinking starts breaking down the resin won’t perform as well as new.
- Exposure to any oxidant impacts the resin bead – chlorine, chloramine, peroxide, ozone, permanganate. One oxidant not frequently mentioned is oxygen.
  - Oxygen in the presence of iron or heat will speed up degradation of cation resin.
- If there is no iron, chlorine, chloramine, etc. present in the water softening resin can last more than 20 years.
- Cation resin swells and contracts during regeneration. This is not a factor in the degradation of the resin.
- As the crosslinking breaks down the resin swells. This is also an indicator of lower capacity.
- Functional Groups
  - The closer together functional groups are, the more selective they are.
  - A 10 percent crosslink cation or macroporous with 12 to 15% crosslink has more functional groups than an 8% and 6%.
  - As the crosslinking breaks down the functional groups are spreading apart and hardness removal is less efficient resulting in increased hardness leakage. (The amount of calcium and magnesium ions not being removed by the softener toward the end of the cycle.)
  - A 6% will work well where there are no oxidants present. Otherwise choose an 8% or 10% crosslinked resin.
- Anion
  - The degradation mechanism of anion is not decrosslinking. The functional group is attacked and goes away. A Type 2 strong base anion converts to a weak base functional group.
  - Chlorine in water is hypochlorous acid. Bleach is sodium hypochlorite and hypochlorite is an anion. Anion resin removes hypochlorite from the water ionically and it can be regenerated off. Permanganate will also regenerate off.
    - In applications where a chlorine residual is required be sure to apply it after the anion bed.
  - We recommend using activated carbon to remove chlorine or chloramine prior cation/anion beds.

Iron Fouling

Cation resin is a big, charged anion (so it attracts cation ions) and anion resin is a big, charged cation (so it attracts anion ions). These resins will attract ionic substances such as ferrous iron Fe⁺² (clear water iron), and naturally occurring organic matter such as tannins.
- Cation resin will remove calcium, magnesium, and ferrous iron (Fe⁺²).
- During the regeneration process the clear water iron converts to ferrous iron (Fe⁺³).
  - The brine in the brine tank has been sitting around getting exposed to oxygen. When you expose water to air, it comes to equilibrium with oxygen at a rate of about 8-10 ppm depending on the water temperature.
- During regeneration the oxygen is present and converts the ferrous iron to ferric iron. To avoid build up on the resin an additive can be used in the brine.
If iron is not removed ahead of softener resin it will stick to the resin and build a layer of mud, or crud or dirt in the resin itself.
Compensated Hardness
- If there is clear water iron in the water the softener must be regenerated more often.
- For every part per million of iron add 4 or 5 grains of hardness.
  - 5 grains of hardness with 2 ppm of iron would be 5 plus 4 plus 4 or 9 grains. Size up the softener based on 9 grains, not 5.

Resin Color

- Color does not affect the performance of the resin.
- The resin is black because it is processed longer and at a higher temperature to create the dark bead.
- If the black cation is “bleached” it is an indicator of the resin wearing out.

Knowledge Base

Water Treatment Knowledge Base

Topic: Microparticles

Topic: Whole House RO

Topic: Using Antiscalants

Topic: Understanding Anion Resin

Specialty or Selective Resins

Cleaning Anion

Resin Condition

Silica

Topic: Fluoride Removal

Activated Alumina

Anion Resin

Bone Char

Reverse Osmosis

Topic: Water Softeners

Which Salt to Do We Use?

Scale Removal

Removing Iron with a Water Softener

Water Hardness & Low pH

Should I use an upper screen?

What type of resin do I use in a softener?

How long does softener resin last?

Should I install a water softener to remove lead?

Topic: Using a MAV (Motorized Alternating Valve) on a Twin, Tri or Quad Softener or Filter

Applications/Options

Topic: Understanding High Efficiency Water Softeners

Can a High Efficiency softener be used if there is iron and manganese in the water?

Topic: Water Softener Salt

Salt Facts

Solar Salt

Pellet Salt

Cube Salt

Potassium Chloride Salt

Rock Salt

Cost

Commercial / Industrial Applications

Topic: Troubleshooting Tips for Technicians – Residential Water Softener

Water Softener Inspection

Check the Water Pressure

Check the Brine Tank

Examine the Control Valve

Examine the Fiberglass Tank if Possible

Topic: Troubleshooting Tips for Technicians – Filters

Filter Inspection

To operate properly, most filters beds require expansion of at least 40%.

Filter Design

Water Chemistry

Topic: Do You Replace or Repair Equipment?

Water Softeners/Filters

Replace (avoid Pandora’s Box and don’t repair)

Repair

Replace Resin

Valve replacement

Valve repair – Clack, Autotrol, Fleck

UV Systems

Chemical Feed Systems

Topic: Ozone Filters

Systems

Considerations when using ozone systems

Topic: Distributions Systems – Tank Internals

Riser Tube, Standpipe, Distributor Tube

When to Use Gravel Sub-Fill

Hub & Lateral Tank Internals

Topic: Activated Carbon

GAC Specifications – What do they measure?

Iodine Number

Molasses Number

Abrasion Number

Density, Backwashed & Drained (BWD)

TCN – Trace Capacity Number

Ash

Water Soluble Ash

Can Activated Carbon be regenerated?

Which type of carbon do I use?

Hydrogen Sulfide (H2SO4)

Chlorine

Tannins

VOC (Volatile Organic Contaminants)

PFAS POS POA PFOA